Intrinsic motivationEdit

Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s. Intrinsic motivation is the self-desire to seek out new things and new challenges, to analyze one's capacity, to observe and to gain knowledge.^[13] It is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for consideration. The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behavior. In these studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in playful and curiosity driven behaviors in the absence of reward. Intrinsic motivation is a natural motivational tendency and is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physical development.^[14] The two necessary elements for intrinsic motivation are self-determinationand an increase in perceived competence.^[15]In short, the cause of the behavior must be internal, known as internal local of causality, and the individual who engages in the behavior must perceive that the task increases their competence.^[14]

Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities.^[16] Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

• attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy or locus of control
• believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as self-efficacy beliefs
• are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades

An example of intrinsic motivation is when an employee becomes an IT professional because he or she wants to learn about how computer users interact with computer networks. The employee has the intrinsic motivation to gain more knowledge.^[17] Art for art's sake is an example of intrinsic motivation in the domain of art.

Traditionally, researchers thought of motivations to use computer systems to be primarily driven by extrinsic purposes; however, many modern systems have their use driven primarily by intrinsic motivations.^[18] Examples of such systems used primarily to fulfil users' intrinsic motivations, include on-line gaming, virtual worlds, online shopping^[19], learning/education, online dating, digital music repositories, social networking, online pornography, gamified systems, and general gamification. Even traditional management information systems (e.g., ERP, CRM) are being 'gamified' such that both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations must increasingly be considered.

Transfer of learning

Transfer of learning is the dependency of human conduct, learning, or performance on prior experience. The notion was originally introduced as transfer of practice by Edward Thorndike and Robert S. Woodworth.^[1] They explored how individuals would transfer learning in one context to another, similar context – or how "improvement in one mental function" could influence a related one. Their theory implied that transfer of learning depends on how similar the learning task and transfer tasks are, or where "identical elements are concerned in the influencing and influenced function", now known as the identical element theory.

Today, transfer of learning is usually described as the process and the effective extent to which past experiences (also referred to as the transfer source) affect learning and performance in a new situation (the transfer target).^[2] However, there remains controversy as to how transfer of learning should be conceptualized and explained, what its prevalence is, what its relation is to learning in general, and whether it exists at all.^[3] There are a wide variety of viewpoints and theoretical frameworks apparent in the literature, which can be categorized as:

• a taxonomical approach that categorizes transfer into different types;
• an application domain-driven approach that focuses on developments and contributions of different disciplines;
• the examination of the psychological functions or faculties transfer models invoke; and
• a concept-driven evaluation, which reveals compares and contrasts theoretical and empirical traditions.

Knowledge transfer involves the application of previously learned knowledge while completing tasks or solving problems.

External and internal evaluation It is also possible to distinguish between external evaluation and internal evaluation. External evaluation. This is evaluation that is carried out by someone who is (or was) not directly involved in the development or operation of the system being evaluated, ie by someone from outwith the project team. Clearly, such an external evaluator has a number of advantages, bringing (it is to be hoped) objectivity, lack of vested interest, and the ability to look at matters from a fresh perspective. An external evaluator also has a number of disadvantages, however, most of which are related to relative value systems and to the lack of involvement the evaluator has had in project-related decisions. Such an evaluator may not, for example, fully appreciate why the development team chose to act in a particular way, or appreciate the thinking that lay behind certain decisions. The project team may also feel threatened by the evaluator, and feel that alien values or a negative, 'nit-picking' approach are being adopted. Internal evaluation. This is evaluation that is carried out by someone from the actual project team. Clearly, such an evaluator has the advantage of understanding fully the thinking behind the development, together with an appreciation of any problems that may have arisen, and should also command the trust and cooperation of the other members of the team. On the other hand, such an evaluator may find it difficult to make any criticisms of the work carried out, and, because of their close involvement with the project, may be unable to suggest any innovative solutions to such problems that are identified. Such an internal evaluator will know only too well how the members of the group have struggled to produce their course, curriculum or package, and may shrink from the thought of involving them in more work.

Curriculum And Methods of Teaching In Vedic Education

Curriculum:-

According to recent researches, following disciplines were included in the curriculum in the graded forms in accordance with the stages of education.

1.      Anthropology

2.      Astronomy

3.      Economics

4.      Epistemology

5.      Eschatology

6.      Ethnology

7.      Geology

8.      Human eugenics

9.      Mathematics

10.  Military Science

The system of education was well-organized. It was suited to the needs of the society education was considered as the greatest gift in ancient India. It was aimed at the development of personality of an individual to his maximum extent. Education helped in the realization of spiritual & moral values, besides preparing for worldly pursuits. It was freely available to all those who wanted the relations between teachers and the pupils were based on love and affection. They were very cordial & intimate.

1. Vedas & Vedic literature:- During the Vedic - age, education became centered on religion which is essentially an effect to establish an harmony between man's total personality and the totality of the universe. The curriculum was dominated by the study of Vedas and Vedic literature, spiritual and moral lessens. Hymns of the Vedas were primarily composed by Rishis as an expression of the inner light for the benefit of man kind. There are four Vedas namely 1 Rig Veda 2 Yajur Veda 3 Sam Veda 4 Atharva Veda.
2. Vedangas:- It includes the study of i. siksha ii. Kalpa iii. Nirukta iv. Chandas v. Jyotisha v. Vyaleama (granner).
3. Logic:- It develops the resonsry facilities.
4. Scheme of Arts & Crafts (silpa - vidya):- It develops aesthetic sense & practical skill in construction regarding symmetry, proposition & beauty.
5. Physical Education:- Meditation & salvation are possible only when one is physically healthy. Hence intense physical education was also included in the curriculum. It built stamina students had to learn riding, wrestling, hunting, swimming, running, jumping, etc. for developing physical & mental strength, early marriage was not in practice in Vedic – age. They strictly observed celibacy upto a particular age to avoid premature old age & death. (Atharva Veda).
6. Professional &technical subjects:- Some professional and technical subjects like medicine and surgery, astronomy, Astrology, Mathematics, economics, were given the importance the curriculum.
7. Dharma:- It was also the part & parcel of curriculum.
8. Meditation:- It was also included. Hymns of Vedas were composed by Rishis as an expression of the inner light for the benefit of mankind. This was in fact the main object of Vedic education. The education of Vedic period was the education of the complete man.
9. Student centered:- A great quality of curriculum of Vedic education was that it was student centered i.e. according to the educational needs, interests & aptitudes of the student. the curriculum was planned in such a way that it met the requirements of every student.
10. stress on other worldliness:- Curriculum in Vedic age, laid more stress on other worldliness. Although provision was made for all the student, yet he was not prepared for this world, but for the eternal happiness in the other world. The highest wisdom was to seek release from worldly claim & the highest knowledge was to acquinted with the method by which self - realization could be attained.

RELATIONSHIP OF UPANISHADS WITH VEDIC LITERATURE
It is generally believed that the mantras, the Braahmanas and parts of the Aranyakas constitute the karma kaanda or the works section of the Vedas, the Upanishads are the jnaana kaanda or the knowledge section. In reality however, the mantras are ancient collections covering a wide range of topics including rituals, ethics, spirituality, cosmology and so on. The wwBraahmanas are theological treatises, largely dealing with Vedic ritual, and rubricating these mantras in the rituals expounded. Often appended to these Braahmanas are esoteric texts called the Aranyakas. And in these Aranyakas, are embedded the Upanishads. However, many Upanishads are stand alone texts which might not have been integral with the Aranyakas. While the subject of the karma kaanda is dharma, the subject of the jnaana kaanda is Brahman or reality. The Upanishads are also called the Vedaanta (Veda - scripture, anta - end of) or the end of the Veda i.e., the final purport of the Vedas. This is because of two reasons: They generally occur at the end of the Samhita-Braahmana-Aranyaka literature; and because they represent a culmination or the 'final view, or essence' (siddhanta) of the Vedic philosophy.
All extant Upanishads are traditional classified under one of the 4 Vedas. Sometimes, this classification is opposed to the correct ancient placement of the Upanishads in the Vedic cannon, and in the case of late Upanishads, such a classification often appears artificial. Appendix 1 groups the various ancient Upanishads under different Shakhas of the Vedas.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE UPANISHADIC DOCTRINE

The modern theory voiced in some quarters that the Upanishads represent the revolt of the critical minded kshatriya against the ritualistic brahmin, finds little support in the texts themselves. For not only do brahmin teachers outnumber kshatriya teachers in the Upanishads, it was only the brahmins who fully developed the teachings of the Upanishads as presented in the various schools of Vedaanta. A kshatriya teaching brahma vidhya or knowledge of reality to a brahmin, is no argument, since tradition allowed all the three top castes to learn Vedaanta and it is not unusual for a spiritually inclined kshatriya to possess higher knowledge of Brahman than the average brahmin. And again such cases are exceptions and not the norm.

Another modern assertion that the Upanishads are against the sacrificial religion of the Braahmanas is not wholly true. As noted before the Vedas are a whole spiritual package and each section - the hymns, the sacrifices, the philosophical discussions - have their validity and usefulness at a certain stage. The sacrificial religion served the religious needs of the masses and also helped in the purification of oneself. At the householder stage they're the main source of revenue for the brahmin. No orthodox thinker would object to that, which has so much social, spiritual and religious utility. So the Upanishads are not against the sacrifices per se, but only against their ultimate validity i.e., their ability or rather the lack of it, to effect liberation. While the sacrificial religion is to be practiced in the householder stage, when one moves to the forest dweller stage one is supposed to meditate on the symbolism and spiritual value of the sacrifices. During the samnyaasin stage one's life (worldly life with all its attachments) itself is said to be the sacrifice.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE UPANISHADS

The Upanishads are truly the fount of all Indian philosophy. All the BrAhmanical schools derive their philosophies from the Upanishads and show an almost pathetic eagerness to find common ground between their doctrines and the Upanishads. Not only is Jainism with its duality of matter and Selves influenced by the Upanishads, even the Buddhist doctrines of annata, kshanikavaada, shunyavaada, vijnaanavaada and the two levels of reality are all derived from the Upanishads.

Numerous scholars have felt compelled down the ages to compose their own commentaries or sub-commentaries on the Upanishads. The commentaries of Shankaracharya are the most ancient available ones, and also the most popular. These are written from an Advaita Vedaanta perspective. The commentaries of Purnapraajna Anandatirtha (also called Madhvacharya) are written from a Dvaita Vedaanta perspective, whereas Rangaramanuja has written his commentaries from a Vishishtadvaita Vedaanta perspective. A partial list of these commentaries in Appendix B will give an idea of how prolific their commentarial tradition has been.

PHILOSOPHY OF THE UPANISHADS

The Upanishads do not represent systematic philosophy. They represent teachings of the sages who experienced or rather became reality (brahma vid brahmaiva bhavati - the knower of Brahman becomes Brahman). The purpose of the Upanishads is not mere intellectual satisfaction, but a practical solution to the ultimate problems of life. It is best expressed in the dialogue between Yama and Nachiketas in the Katha Upanishad. Nachiketas, a braahmana boy questions Yama (the God of Death) as to what happens to one's self after death. Does one exist or does he not, then? Yama tries to dissuade the boy from seeking an answer to a question, which even Gods find difficult to understand. Instead he offers a wide array of earthly comforts : long life, wealth, gold, elephants, horses, land, beautiful women etc. Nachiketas turns them down saying that all these are transient and only serve to wear out the senses of men. And when one has seen him i.e., Yama or death, how could anybody enjoy these things of sense? And having understood the transience of objects of sense and the implicit suffering contained in them, who would wish for a longer life?

As all phenomena are transient in nature worldly life ultimately leads to disappointment and suffering. Death puts an end to all our hopes and ridicules our achievements in life. To be born again is only to go through the same grind. So the end of suffering is not to be born at all and to become immortal. This according to the Upanishads can be achieved when we know the true nature of our Self (Atman).

The teaching of the Upanishads can be best understood under the following three categories :

1. the Self or essence of man - Atman
2. the Self or essence of the world - Brahman
3. the relation between Atman and Brahman

According to the Upanishads when knowledge of one's Self (Atman) is acquired, knowledge of the essence (Self) of the world (Brahman) as well as the relationship between Atman and Brahman is known.

Evaluation

Evaluation is a systematic determination of a subject's merit, worth and significance, using criteria governed by a set of standards. It can assist an organization, program, project or any other intervention or initiative to assess any aim, realisable concept/proposal, or any alternative, to help in decision-making; or to ascertain the degree of achievement or value in regard to the aim and objectives and results of any such action that has been completed.^[1] The primary purpose of evaluation, in addition to gaining insight into prior or existing initiatives, is to enable reflection and assist in the identification of future change.^[2]

Evaluation is often used to characterize and appraise subjects of interest in a wide range of human enterprises, including the arts, criminal justice, foundations, non-profit organizations, government, health care, and other human services. It is long term and done at the end of a period of time.

DefinitionEdit

Evaluation is the structured interpretation and giving of meaning to predicted or actual impacts of proposals or results. It looks at original objectives, and at what is either predicted or what was accomplished and how it was accomplished. So evaluation can be formative, that is taking place during the development of a concept or proposal, project or organization, with the intention of improving the value or effectiveness of the proposal, project, or organisation. It can also be summative, drawing lessons from a completed action or project or an organisation at a later point in time or circumstance.

Evaluation is inherently a theoretically informed approach (whether explicitly or not), and consequently any particular definition of evaluation would have been tailored to its context – the theory, needs, purpose, and methodology of the evaluation process itself. Having said this, evaluation has been defined as:

• A systematic, rigorous, and meticulous application of scientific methods to assess the design, implementation, improvement, or outcomes of a program. It is a resource-intensive process, frequently requiring resources, such as, evaluate expertise, labor, time, and a sizable budget^[3]
• "The critical assessment, in as objective a manner as possible, of the degree to which a service or its component parts fulfills stated goals" (St Leger and Wordsworth-Bell).^{[4][not in citation given]} The focus of this definition is on attaining objective knowledge, and scientifically or quantitatively measuring predetermined and external concepts.
• "A study designed to assist some audience to assess an object's merit and worth" (Stufflebeam).^{[4][not in citation given]} In this definition the focus is on facts as well as value laden judgments of the programs outcomes and worth.