Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India

The Preamble of the Constitution of India – India declaring itself as a country.

The Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Duties are sections of the Constitution of India that prescribe the fundamental obligations of the states to its citizens and the duties and the rights of the citizens to the State.^{[note 1]} These sections comprise a constitutional bill of rights for government policy-making and the behaviour and conduct of citizens. These sections are considered vital elements of the constitution, which was developed between 1947 and 1949 by the Constituent assembly of India.

The Fundamental Rights are defined as the basic human rights of all citizens. These rights, defined in Part III of the Constitution, applied irrespective of race, place of birth, religion, caste, creed, or gender. They are enforceable by the courts, subject to specific restrictions. The Directive Principles of State Policy are guidelines for the framing of laws by the government. These provisions, set out in Part IV of the Constitution, are not enforceable by the courts, but the principles on which they are based are fundamental guidelines for governance that the State is expected to apply in framing policies and passing laws.

The Fundamental Duties are defined as the moral obligations of all citizens to help promote a spirit of patriotism and to uphold the unity of India. These duties, set out in Part IV–A of the Constitution, concern individuals and the nation. Like the Directive Principles, they are not enforceable by courts unless otherwise made enforceable by a parliamentary law.

Guiding values of the Indian constitution: a)We,the people of India b)Sovereign c)Socialist d)Secular e)Democratic f)Republic g)Justice h)Liberty I)Equality j)Fraternity

School Administration

Each school is headed by one Headmaster. The head of an institution is solely responsible for institutional planning and management. He or she decides how to use the available resources and how to initiate steps to mobilize the resources. He or she involves the teachers, parents, other associations etc. towards the achievement of qualitative education for younger generations.

Powers of head of the institution:

1. 1.      Supervising the teachers

2. 2.      Maintaining attendance of teachers and records

3. 3.      Reviewing the notes of lessons

4. 4.      Sanctioning of leave to teachers

5. 5.      Preparation of statement for claiming pay for teachers

6. 6.      Conducting District Level examination

(Quarterly-Sep, Half Yearly-December, Annually - Mar/Apr)

Generally academic year of the educational institution is begins with first day of June of the year and ends with the 15th day of April of the following year.

Working Pattern of a School

School	Working days for a year	Working hours per day	Workload of a teacher
Elementary and Middle Schools	220 days	9.30 am to 4.30 pm
High and Higher Secondary Schools	200 days	Urban 8.30 am to 5.00 pm Rural 9.00 am to 5.30 pm

 SCHOOL   INTERNSHIP -2018

 

COGNITIVE  FUNCTIONS

Cognitive psychologists study cognitive functions to understand how we acquire information and process that information. To understand how this works, think about your life. In what ways do you acquire information, and how do you use that information? Many processes are involved in acquiring information, including listening, watching, reading, searching out information, or just paying attention to things around you. In all cases, you are using your cognitive functions to gather information.

Cognitive functions include:

• Attention
• Memory
• Language
• Perception
• Decision making
• Problem solving

Each cognitive function works to help you gather and process information, and they often work together in interrelated processes. Let's take a closer look at how all of these work in action.

Memory, Decision Making, and Problem Solving

Say that you are engaged in conversation with your mother over where you should eat for dinner. Your mother is providing you several reasons why it is better to eat at restaurant A. You, on the other hand, want to eat at restaurant B. As you discuss the pros and cons of each restaurant, you have to keep the comments your mother makes in your head. You also have to pull from your existing knowledge and create a counter argument to your mother's comments. This process involves your working memory. Working memory is the cognitive function whereby you keep information in mind to work on it and solve a particular problem. In this case, you are keeping information your mother tells you in mind, while simultaneously thinking about how you can use that information against your mother.

Although we can't see and measure how and where that information is stored in the brain, we still have been studying working memory for many years. In fact, a fairly complex theory for how it works exists. The basic theory of working memory suggests that there are several components of the working memory system that include a phonological loop for storing verbal content, a visual spatial sketch pad for storing visual information, and a central executive that oversees everything. Conceptualizing these elements helps us to see how memory works and the different underlying mental processes that occur when we engage in the cognitive function.

Motivation

Motivation is the reason for people's actions, desires, and needs. Motivation is also one's direction to behavior, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behavior.^[1] A motive is what prompts the person to act in a certain way, or at least develop an inclination for specific behavior.^[2]

According to Maehr and Meyer, "Motivation is a word that is part of the popular culture as few other psychological concepts are."^[3]

Motivation theories can be classified on a number of bases:

• Natural vs. Rational: based on whether the underlying theory of human cognition is based on natural forces (drives, needs, desires) or some kind of rationality (instrumentality, meaningfulness, self-identity).
• Content vs. Process: based on whether the focus is on the content ("what" motivates) vs process ("how" motivation takes place).

NeuroscienceEdi

Motivation as a desire to perform an action is usually defined as having two parts, directional such as directed towards a positive stimulus or away from a negative one, as well as the activated "seeking phase" and consummatory "liking phase". This type of motivation has neurobiological roots in the basal ganglia, and mesolimbic dopaminergic pathways. Activated "seeking" behavior, such as locomotor activity, is influenced by dopaminergic drugs, and microdialysisexperiments reveal that dopamine is released during the anticipation of a reward.^[4] The "wanting behavior" associated with a rewarding stimulus can be increased by microinjections of dopamine and dopaminergic drugs in the dorsorostral nucleus accumbens and posterior ventral palladium. Opioid injections in this area produce pleasure, however outside of these hedonic hotspots they create an increased desire.^[5] Furthermore, depletion or inhibition of dopamine in neurons of the nucleus accumbens decreases appetitive but not consummatory behavior. Dopamine is further implicated in motivation as administration of amphetamine increased the break point in a progressive ratio self-reinforcement schedule. That is, subjects were willing to go to greater lengths (e.g. press a lever more times) to obtain a reward.^[6]

What is a portfolio?

A student portfolio is a systematic collection of student work and related material that depicts a student's activities, accomplishments, and achievements in one or more school subjects. The collection should include evidence of student reflection and self-evaluation, guidelines for selecting the portfolio contents, and criteria for judging the quality of the work. The goal is to help students assemble portfolios that illustrate their talents, represent their writing capabilities, and tell their stories of school achievement... (Venn, 2000, pp. 530-531)

Two Types of Portfolios:

Process and product portfolios represent the two major types of portfolios. A process portfoliodocuments the stages of learning and provides a progressive record of student growth. A product portfoliodemonstrates mastery of a learning task or a set of learning objectives and contains only the best work... Teachers use process portfolios to help students identify learning goals, document progress over time, and demonstrate learning mastery... In general, teachers prefer to use process portfolios because they are ideal for documenting the stages that students go through as they learn and progress (Venn, 2000, p. 533).

Steps in the Portfolio Assessment Process

First, the teacher and the student need to clearly identify the portfolio contents, which are samples of student work, reflections, teacher observations, and conference records. Second, the teacher should develop evaluation procedures for keeping track of the portfolio contents and for grading the portfolio... Third, the teacher needs a plan for holding portfolio conferences, which are formal and informal meetings in which students review their work and discuss their progress. Because they encourage reflective teaching and learning, these conference are an essential part of the portfolio assessment process (Venn, 2000, p. 540).

Advantages of Portfolio Assessment

• Promoting student self-evaluation, reflection, and critical thinking.
• Measuring performance based on genuine samples of student work.
• Providing flexibility in measuring how students accomplish their learning goals.
• Enabling teachers and students to share the responsibility for setting learning goals and for evaluating progress toward meeting those goals.
• Giving students the opportunity to have extensive input into the learning process.
• Facilitating cooperative learning activities, including peer evaluation and tutoring, cooperative learning groups, and peer conferencing.
• Providing a process for structuring learning in stages.
• Providing opportunities for students and teachers to discuss learning goals and the progress toward those goals in structured and unstructured conferences.
• Enabling measurement of multiple dimensions of student progress by including different types of data and materials. (Venn, 2000, p. 538)

Disadvantages of Portfolio Assessment

• Requiring extra time to plan an assessment system and conduct the assessment.
• Gathering all of the necessary data and work samples can make portfolios bulky and difficult to manage.
• Developing a systematic and deliberate management system is difficult, but this step is necessary in order to make portfolios more than a random collection of student work.
• Scoring portfolios involves the extensive use of subjective evaluation procedures such as rating scales and professional judgment, and this limits reliability.
• Scheduling individual portfolio conferences is difficulty and the length of each conference may interfere with other instructional activities. (Venn, 2000, p. 538)

Classroom Assessment Technique

Classroom Assessment Techniques, also referred to as CATs, are strategies educators use to gauge how well students are comprehending key points during a lesson or a course. The techniques are meant to be a type of formative assessment that also allow teachers to make adjustments to a lesson based on students' needs. CATs are most commonly ungraded, unanimous, and are conducted during class time.^[1]

BackgroundEdit

The incorporation of classroom assessment techniques is an age-old concept which teachers have been using and practicing for years. Whether a teacher uses a technique learned in training, or simply a strategy conjured up on their own, teachers need to know if their methods are successful and many feel that the desire to understand students' comprehension is instinctive. Despite this innate characteristic among teachers, the first real attempt to document such techniques for teachers didn't appear until 1988, when K. Patricia Cross and Thomas A. Angelo published “Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for Faculty”.

Benefits for teachersEdit

By using feedback attained through CATs, teachers gain insight into which concepts their students understand the best and which ones are most confusing. They can then use this information to decide when there needs to be more instruction, and when the class is ready to move on to the next topic. In this way, teachers are able to meet the needs of their students most effectively. These techniques can also help teachers understand the ways their students learn the best, as well as alert teachers when a certain teaching approach is not working very well. Other benefits include flexibility and timeliness.^[2] Many of the techniques, although not all, can be used in a variety of ways. They can be adapted to fit large or small class sizes, or modified depending on what subject matter is being taught; they can be used to assess students' recall or critical thinking skills. Also, CATs require very little time, if any, to be set aside - most of the activities can be conducted during regular instruction time.

Benefits for studentsEdit

Classroom Assessment Techniques allow students a chance to see how they are progressing over time. Along with that, it shows students that their feedback can make a difference in what and how they learn, which in turn could lead students to take more ownership of their education. Students have reported that they feel more involved in the learning process when these techniques are used in the classroom because it requires them to focus on what they're learning^[2] – they become active participants rather than passive learners. The integration of CATs in the classroom can also serve as an example for how learning is an ongoing, highly adaptable process.^[1]

Objectives of NCERT 

The main objectives of the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) are to:

(i) undertake, aid, promote and coordinate research in areas related to school education;

(ii) prepare and publish model textbooks, supplementary material, newsletters, journals and other related literature;

(iii) organize pre-service and in-service training of teachers;

(iv) develop and disseminate innovative educational techniques and practices;

(v) collaborate and network with state educational departments, universities, NGOs and other educational institutions;

(vi) act as a clearing house for ideas and information in matters related to school education;

(vii) act as a nodal agency for achieving goals of universalisation of elementary education.

Representations have been received from time to time with regard to history textbooks. The representations, as and when received, are forwarded to the concerned for taking appropriate action. Whenever complaints pertained to NCERT text-books, NCERT has taken these representations into consideration and, wherever found necessary, changes have been carried out in the relevant text books.

NCERT constituted an expert Committee, consisting of experts from various universities/institutions in the country to take a quick review of History Textbooks of NCERT to remove any mistake or controversial material, if any, mentioned therein. The Committee has submitted its report.

The NCERT history textbooks already include a number of glorious historical incidents of the country from the ancient to the modern periods of Indian history. The National Curriculum Framework (NCF)-2005 suggests integration of value concerns in the entire school life – the curriculum, classroom environment, school management, textbooks, teaching learning, teacher pupil relationships etc. 

Causes of the educated unemployment in India

There is the different cause of the educated unemployment in India.

• Disloyalty under educated system

Under the education system, there is the disloyalty, which produces graduates and post-graduates like pins and it is one of the most defective cause for the problem of Educated Unemployment.

It becomes very important in the today’s life, to get the degrees and make the aim to get the job by knocking the door of government or commercial offices for post of petty clerks

• Lack of skill

The mind of a village boy or the son of an agriculturist is so badly affected by four years of academic life in the city that he would consider it below his dignity to fall back to his paternal profession as a University graduate.

The son of the agriculturist would prefer to live in the city as a clerk drawing a salary which may be ten times less than the amount which he can earn by improving his father’s agricultural profession.

• Lack of knowledge of technical and vocational institution

In the country, those people have not the knowledge of everything, then they will be insufficient to get the job.

There is a miserable dearth of technical and vocational institutions in the country. There are very few Engineering and Technological colleges, and the expenses for undergoing these courses are so high that an average person, belonging to the middle class, cannot afford to have his son admitted in these institutions.

• Different mentalities

In the University education system, it is common that it has the many restrictions and it allows only that students to reach their goal, those are eligible to secure at least a high second division in their basic examinations.

It is a most intensified problem of the India, which is producing mass graduates and more technical, medical and agricultural colleges should be established all over the country and Government aid and scholarships should be granted to the deserving student.

• Lack of cottage industries

Particularly, there is the lack of cottage industries and the village boys remain unemployed, but they should be imparted training in cottage industries so that they might earn their livelihood by starting such industries in their villages.

• Population and migration

The population and migration are also the biggest problems of the educated unemployment. There are the uncontrolled population growth and migration of foreign job seekers in the country.

It is also defined the bad condition by the overpopulation because country’s human population exceeds the carrying capacity of its environment.

Schemes of government

• Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana is established for educated unemployed youth.
• Scheme for Educated Unemployed for employment generation in urban localities (SEEGUL)
• Scheme of Self-Employment for Educated Unemployed Youth (SEEUY)
• Schemes for the State Governments (Educated Unemployed Youth)
• Scheme for “New Initiative in Skill Development through PPP” by Planning Commission of India
• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)

Conclusion

The unemployment problem, especially among the educated youth of India, should be given a serious consideration by the government, as the youth of today is to be the pillar of the nation in future. If the rising generation is demoralised and degenerated; if its spirit and fervour are chilled under the impact of unemployment, our country will not be able to make any substantial advance in future.